Fig. 3

Notable examples of how genetic and environmental factors interact to influence the risk of developing NCDs. This Sankey diagram illustrates examples of gene-environment interactions in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) identified through genome-wide gene-environment interaction and Mendelian randomization studies; it is not an exhaustive list of GxE interaction studies in NCDs. Genes (left vertical lines) are connected through environmental exposures (middle vertical lines) to NCDs (right vertical lines); green lines represent interactions that reduce NCD risk, while light purple lines indicate increased risk. Studies using candidate-gene approaches were excluded due to inherent limitations such as high risk of false positives, lower replication rates, selection bias, and limited genetic coverage. A full list of the SNPs (rsID and PMID) implicated in the GxE interactions and a brief description of each GxE interaction are shown in Table S1